Teaser

What kind of language is C? What are the properties? Which paradigms does it belong to? How can we categorize it?

What kind of language is C? Programming languages can be categorized from various perspectives, often referred to as paradigms. The characteristics of the C programming language and the paradigms it belongs to are listed below.

Just as in real life, characteristics of programming languages aren’t simply binary (0/1); they often exist on a spectrum. For a given feature ‘x’, one might say, ‘The C language doesn’t embody feature x as strongly as language Y.’ Moreover, different sources might classify C under varying paradigms or categories, and some of these classifications can be subjective. The following points reflect my personal understanding of these aspects.

🤖 artificial

C is an artificial language. You might say

Hmm…, that is not very interesting, it should be artificial since it is a programming language, a language for computers not for humans, right?

Indeed, this argument holds merit. However, it’s noteworthy that some programming languages bear a closer resemblance to natural languages, such as English or Turkish, compared to others. Take, for instance, our venerable COBOL, which dates back to the 1960s.

ADD 1 TO x
ADD 1, a, b TO x ROUNDED, y, z ROUNDED

ADD a, b TO c
    ON SIZE ERROR
        DISPLAY "Error"
END-ADD

ADD a TO b
    NOT SIZE ERROR
        DISPLAY "No error"
    ON SIZE ERROR
        DISPLAY "Error"

It sounds closer to English, right? Or consider SQL

SELECT * FROM users WHERE name = '' OR '1'='1';

It sounds like an English sentence. Now let’s look at some C code

while(n--)
  *p1++=*p2++;

This looks more artificial than COBOL or SQL, only while sounds like English.

Almost all programming languages are artificial, but like many programming languages, C is closer to a machine than a human.

🔨 compiled

Like C++ and Java, C is a compiled language.

At the heart of compiled languages is the process of transforming source code into native machine code before execution. C, a venerable and powerful language, epitomizes this category. Before a C program can run, it is compiled into the instruction set architecture (ISA) of the target processor. This direct translation to machine code allows C programs to execute efficiently and directly on the processor, without any intermediary.

C++, sharing a lineage with C, follows a similar path. It is directly compiled into the target processor’s instructions, enabling it to leverage the full capabilities of the hardware.

Java, another compiled language, introduces a twist in the compilation process. Java code is compiled into Java bytecode, an intermediate representation. This bytecode is then executed by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), which can be thought of as the ISA for a virtual processor. This layer of abstraction allows Java to be platform-independent, a key feature that distinguishes it from C and C++.

On the other side of the spectrum are interpreted languages like JavaScript and Python. These languages are typically not compiled into machine code beforehand. Instead, they are executed line-by-line by an interpreter, which translates the code into machine-readable instructions on the fly during runtime. This approach offers flexibility and ease of development but often at the cost of execution speed.

Python, traditionally known as an interpreted language, illustrates the evolving nature of language execution. Implementations like PyPy use Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation, a technique that compiles Python code during execution to enhance performance. This demonstrates how Python blurs the lines between interpreted and compiled languages, though it is generally categorized as the former.

Portability Considerations

Being a compiled language, C presents unique challenges in terms of portability. For every different combination of target architecture and operating system, such as x86/Windows, x86/Linux, ARM/Linux, ARM/Baremetal, or Risc-V/Linux, a C program must be recompiled. This requirement stems from the fact that compiled languages like C translate code into machine-specific instructions, which vary depending on the hardware and operating system.

In contrast, interpreted languages typically operate at the source level. Languages like Python or JavaScript are processed by an interpreter, which reads and executes the source code directly. This source-level operation means that as long as the target system has a compatible interpreter, the same code can run across different architectures and operating systems without modification. This attribute makes interpreted languages generally more portable than compiled languages like C.

Performance Trade-offs

However, the compiled nature of C brings significant advantages in terms of performance. When a C program is compiled, it is transformed into optimized machine code specific to the target hardware. This direct translation results in increased execution speed and reduced memory usage, as the program can interact more efficiently with the hardware.

Compiled languages are often preferred for applications where performance is critical, such as system programming, game development, or any scenario where resource constraints are a major consideration. The efficiency of machine code means that compiled programs can execute faster and more efficiently than their interpreted counterparts, in general.

💚 efficient

C is known for its efficiency. When discussing efficiency in programming, it’s important to specify the type of efficiency being referred to. In this context, ‘efficiency’ relates to the number of instructions generated during the compilation of code. Low-level languages like C and C++, are typically more efficient in terms of execution speed and memory usage compared to high-level languages. This efficiency in resource utilization leads to lower energy consumption during operation, which is why such languages are sometimes labeled as energy-efficient or even 🌍 green languages, symbolizing their lesser impact on the environment.

From a different perspective, high-level languages can also be considered more efficient, depending on the ease and speed with which a program performing the same task can be written. In this regard, from a developer’s viewpoint, high-level languages like Python may offer greater efficiency compared to languages like C. This efficiency is in terms of coding productivity - achieving more in less time. However, while code writing in high-level languages is more time-efficient, their execution may not be as efficient in terms of speed and resource utilization as in low-level languages like C. Therefore, it’s not accurate to label any one programming language as universally ‘best’ or ‘most efficient’ in every aspect.

Owing to its efficiency and “near hardware” — both in terms of performance and its mid-to-low-level nature — the C language stands as an ideal choice for system programming and operating system development.

🎨 expressive

C is an expressive language. What does this mean, exactly? Expressiveness in programming is all about how easily a language lets you communicate your ideas. This includes conveying your intentions and goals to both the compiler and other programmers. Thanks to its well-thought-out design, clear rules, intuitive syntax, and semantic precision, C excels in this area. These qualities enable programmers to write algorithms and programs in a way that is both straightforward and unambiguous. This clarity and power are key reasons why C has had such a significant influence on many other programming languages. For those interested in exploring this topic further, there’s an insightful article available. Here’s a notable quote from that article:

A language is expressive when it allows a programmer to easily convey his/her intent, with errors detected early. In contrast to assembly languages, C allows one to constrain variables to hold values from specific types, so it is more expressive here. In contrast to C, Java allows to test if a value is within the length a.length of an array a, so it is more expressive here. Contrary to Java, Ada allows one to constrain scalar variables to hold values from specific ranges, so it is more expressive here.

Conversely, many newer programming languages, such as C++, are generally regarded as being more expressive than C. It’s important to note that expressiveness in programming languages exists on a spectrum rather than as a binary characteristic.

⭕ general purpose

C is a General-purpose programming language. Its efficiency across various platforms — including embedded systems, Windows/Linux operating systems, and diverse architectures like x86, ARM, and RISC-V — and various problems stems from its design. Unlike languages tailored for specific problem types or architectures, C is broadly applicable. This characteristic is shared by many well-known languages such as C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, and Python, all of which fall under the general-purpose category.

However, there are languages specifically designed for certain domains or to program specialized hardware, such as FPGAs. These are known as Domain-Specific Languages (DSLs). For instance, SQL is tailored for database queries, while HDLs like Verilog and VHDL are used for programming FPGAs.

👮 imperative

C is known as an imperative language, a term translated as ‘buyurgan’ in Turkish. In imperative programming, like in C, programmers directly control the program’s state or flow by writing explicit statements — it’s akin to giving orders to a computer 1. This style is also common in languages like C++ and Python.

On the flip side, we have declarative languages (‘bildirimsel’ in Turkish). Here, programmers focus on describing what should be done rather than how it should be done. In declarative programming, the program’s flow isn’t explicitly controlled by the programmer. SQL and Make are classic examples of declarative languages. Let’s delve into some examples to illustrate these concepts.

The following code snippet is an example from a C program.

//...

if (x > 20) {
    y = 5;
    foo();
} else
    bar();

//...

In this C program snippet, the imperative programming style is evident. We directly control the program’s flow using an if statement and dictate specific actions through function calls to foo() and bar(). Additionally, we modify the program’s state by altering the value of y. The program’s direction changes based on the comparison result of x with 20. Each line in this snippet explicitly instructs the computer on the operations to perform, demonstrating the characteristic “order-driven” nature of imperative programming.

A Declarative Example

The following SQL code (query) fetches data from a table named Users stored in a database.

SELECT * FROM Users WHERE username='admin' AND PASSWORD='admin' ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 1;

In contrast to C, consider how we use SQL, which is a declarative language. Here, we describe our desired outcome without specifying how the database engine should achieve it. For example, suppose we want to retrieve a single row from the Users table where both the username and password are admin, and in case of multiple matches, we prefer the user with the highest id. In this scenario, do we need to implement the sorting algorithm ourselves? Absolutely not! Our focus is solely on the end result, not the underlying operations and flow executed by the database engine. This contrasts with programming in C, where we are required to explicitly give orders and control the program’s flow.

Computer Architecture and Imperative Programming

The imperative programming paradigm aligns closely with the fundamental nature of computer programming, especially considering the basic design of computer and processor architectures. Since the advent of the microprocessor era, the core functioning of most processors hasn’t drastically changed. They primarily execute instructions sequentially, with certain instructions (like branch instructions) altering the flow of execution. From this viewpoint, programming in C closely mirrors programming in assembly language, albeit at a slightly higher abstraction level.

Interestingly, programs written in declarative languages like SQL also run on these same processors. In today, there isn’t a special processor designed exclusively for SQL or other declarative languages 2.

The key difference between the imperative and declarative paradigms lies in the programmer’s perspective of computer interaction.

Even though a database engine executing SQL code ultimately translates into similar processor instructions as a C program, the engine itself might be written in an imperative language like C. In essence, when you use a declarative language, the underlying computer architecture becomes more abstract compared to when you’re programming in an imperative language. Whether this abstraction is beneficial or not largely depends on the specific requirements and context of your programming needs.

Functional Programming

The functional programming paradigm falls under the broader category of declarative programming. This approach is exemplified by purely functional languages such as Haskell. In recent times, many modern programming languages, including Python and C++, have incorporated features that support functional programming. These include tools like lambda functions, enabling programmers to adopt a functional style within these languages.

It’s important to note that a programming language doesn’t have to strictly belong to one paradigm. In fact, most programming languages today are multi-paradigm, meaning they support various programming approaches to varying degrees. This versatility allows programmers to choose the most suitable paradigm — or a combination of them — depending on their specific project requirements.

Summary

It’s interesting to note that some languages, like Python or C++ 3, allow programming in both imperative and declarative styles. This dual capability offers programmers the flexibility to choose the most appropriate approach for their needs. However, it’s important to remember that C is an imperative language.

⚠️ Unlike many modern languages, C does not inherently support the declarative programming paradigm. While it is possible to introduce some declarative features into C using third-party libraries, such extensions don’t fundamentally alter the language’s paradigm or category. The crucial aspect here is that for a language to be considered native to a certain paradigm, these features should be built-in, not added externally.

⬇ middle-low level

The ‘level’ of a programming language indicates how close it is to human understanding versus how close it is to a computer’s processing capabilities. Lower-level languages are closer to the machine’s language, while high-level languages are more abstracted and closer to human language. For instance, an assembly language specific to a processor represents one of the lowest-level languages for that system. Conversely, GUI-based languages like Scratch are among the highest-level languages. In high-level languages, abstracted models of the computer are created, allowing programmers to focus less on the intricacies of CPU architecture and memory organization. However, when using low-level languages, a deeper understanding of the computer’s workings is often necessary to fully leverage the benefits these languages offer.

Programming languages can typically be classified into three categories based on their levels: low-level, middle-level, and high-level. C is often regarded as a middle-level language, though it leans closely towards the lower end of the spectrum. This positioning reflects its balance between providing direct hardware control, characteristic of low-level languages, and offering some level of abstraction, common in high-level languages.

When a C program is compiled, the resulting assembly code often closely mirrors the original C source code, line-by-line. This close correlation has led to C being sometimes referred to as a portable assembly language. C is known for its compactness, avoiding the bloat often associated with high-level languages. Unlike many high-level languages that offer sophisticated mechanisms like garbage collection to simplify programming tasks, C places the full responsibility on the programmer. This includes managing aspects like memory allocation and deallocation, making C both powerful and demanding.

The categorization of a programming language’s level can evolve with technological advancements. As noted in History of C, Unix and C part, the rewrite of UNIX in C in 1973 was a revolutionary move. At that time, C was considered a high-level language. Today, however, with the emergence of languages like Python and Java, as well as GUI-based languages like Scratch or Simulink, C is seen as occupying a lower level by comparison. These newer languages are considered to be at a much higher level than C in the current technological landscape. It’s interesting to consider that in the future, what we now regard as high-level languages might shift to be seen as middle-level, as the field of programming continues to evolve and grow.

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🆓 non-proprietary

C is a non-proprietary language, meaning it isn’t owned or controlled by a single group or company. In contrast, some languages are proprietary, developed and maintained primarily to meet the needs of a specific organization. An example of a proprietary language is MATLAB, which is developed by MathWorks. It’s important to note that being proprietary doesn’t inherently imply a negative aspect; it simply reflects a different model of development and control. In contrast to proprietary languages, many well-known and widely used languages like C, C++, and Python are non-proprietary. Their development is overseen by committees or communities rather than being dictated by a single corporate entity.

🎊 popular

There’s no question about C’s popularity. It’s the language behind the kernels of almost all operating systems, like Linux, and is extensively used in embedded systems that utilize microcontrollers. Despite being 50 years old, C remains a top choice for software that needs to operate closely with hardware, demands high performance, and requires minimal space. Both C and C++ are favored in system programming applications that run on operating systems but also have stringent performance requirements. One of the key advantages of writing in C is the ability to understand precisely how your code interacts with the hardware, providing a clear insight into the execution process.

Certainly, C isn’t a one-size-fits-all solution for every programming challenge. If such a universal language existed, it would dominate all software development, and the vast array of languages we see today wouldn’t be necessary. However, there are specific domains where C excels and few alternatives can match its performance. Its popularity is particularly evident among professionals working in these areas. Despite this, there’s often a desire to quantify such subjective perceptions of popularity with numerical data. So, the question arises: How do we objectively measure the popularity of a programming language like C?

One numerical indicator of a programming language’s popularity is the TIOBE Index. While there are various discussions and debates about the methodology and accuracy of this measurement, which I’ll delve into in later sections, it serves as a useful starting point for our discussion. Let’s explore what the TIOBE Index reveals about programming language trends for now.

TIOBE Index

As of December 2023, when this article was written, the TIOBE Index, which is updated monthly, ranks programming languages by their global popularity. According to this index, the C programming language holds the position of the second most popular language, with Python leading at first place and C++ following closely in third. A review of the index over the past 35 years reveals a consistent trend: the C language has always been among the top two most popular languages according to this measure.

The TIOBE Index employs a measurement method that has sparked controversy. It quantifies the popularity of programming languages based on the number of search engine results related to each language. 4 This approach has been a subject of significant debate, with various opinions questioning its validity and meaningfulness. I have delved into this topic extensively in a detailed article.

  • 🔗 A similar content

    Teaser

    TIOBE Index nedir? GĂźvenebilir miyiz?

    Programlama dillerini öğrenirken ve onları kıyaslarken bu endeks karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Peki nedir? Güvenilir midir?

In conclusion, the question arises: Is C a popular language and does its popularity matter to us? Consider this - languages like Verilog and VHDL, crucial in FPGA and ASIC design, may not rank high on popularity scales. Does this mean they’re not worth learning? Absolutely not! For professionals in these fields, mastery of these languages is essential. The key takeaway is that the necessity of learning a language should be based on your specific needs and interests, not merely its popularity. C, as I mentioned earlier, is a standout in certain domains. If you’re planning to work in those areas or are simply curious, learning C is invaluable. Beyond that, I’d suggest not to fixate too much on popularity metrics.

Further Read

👜 portable

Portability refers to how easily a program written for one architecture or platform can be transferred to another. Assembly language is typically at the lower end of the portability spectrum. This is because assembly programs are closely tied to the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) of specific processor families, which varies greatly. C, on the other hand, stands in stark contrast. Generally, most C programs can be relatively easily ported to different platforms or processors, provided there’s a compatible compiler available for the target system. This characteristic of C was a pivotal factor in the history of UNIX. In the 1970s, rewriting UNIX in C was a critical step, as it significantly simplified the process of porting the operating system to various architectures, unlike an operating system written purely in assembly.

C is characterized as a source-level portable language. This means that while a C program must be compiled for a specific platform or architecture, the original source code itself is highly portable. The compiled executable, however, is typically only compatible with the target system for which it was compiled. For instance, a binary file compiled for an x86/Windows system will not run on x86/Linux or any ARM architecture. To make the program run on different systems, the same source code needs to be compiled separately for each target system, usually with little to no modification. This attribute is why C is considered portable at the source code level. Given its relatively low-level nature, C is sometimes referred to as a portable assembly language.

⚠️ While C is theoretically a portable language, the practicalities of porting a complex C program can be challenging due to several factors. These include differences in operating systems, specific architectural details, and the implementation-defined behaviors of various compilers. As a result, while the core language is designed for portability, the real-world process of adapting a C program for different systems might not be as straightforward as it initially seems.

The concept of source code level portability, as seen in C, was revolutionary for programmers accustomed to assembly language. However, the industry has since developed other levels of portability. For instance, languages like C# and Java are known for their binary portability. The compilers for these languages generate machine-independent intermediate code, which is then executed on the target platform by a runtime environment, such as the Java Runtime Environment. This approach enables the same binary file to run across different platforms. It’s important to note, however, that just as source-level portable languages like C require different compilers for each target platform, binary portable languages like C# and Java need specific runtime environments for each platform to ensure their portability.

〽 procedural

The procedural programming paradigm, known as ‘prosedürel programlama’ in Turkish, is a subset of the broader imperative programming paradigm. Another well-known category under imperative programming is object-oriented programming (OOP), or ‘nesne yönelimli programlama’ in Turkish 5. C serves as a prime example of procedural programming, illustrating the paradigm’s characteristics effectively 6.

Procedural programming is a programming paradigm that embodies the idea of functional decomposition. This approach is akin to the divide and conquer strategy, where larger problems are broken down into smaller, more manageable functions or procedures. Each of these functions addresses a specific part of the task, working together to solve the overall problem.

Philip II of Macedon

Philip II of Macedon: “Did somebody say divide and conquer?” Origin

When programming in C, programmers typically approach a problem by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable components. For each of these smaller problems, specific C functions are written. These functions, each addressing a distinct segment of the original problem, are then combined to form a complete solution. It’s worth noting that in different programming languages, the parts of the program that solve these smaller problems may be referred to by various terms, such as function (as in C), procedure, routine, subroutine, or method.

Consider a simple task: we need to write a program that takes an integer input from the user and prints ‘true’ if the number is divisible by 3, and ‘false’ otherwise. Even though this is a straightforward example, it can still be divided into sub-problems. For each sub-problem, we can create a dedicated C function. These sub-problems could include functions for getting the user input, checking divisibility by 3, and displaying the result. By addressing each of these aspects separately, we effectively apply the procedural programming approach in C.

#include <stdio.h>

int get_input(){
    int x;
    printf("Please enter an integer: ");
    scanf("%d",&x);
    return x;
}

int isDivisibleby3(int a){
    return !(a%3);
}

int main(void) {
    int y;
    y = get_input();
    if (isDivisibleby3(y))
        printf("true\n");
    else
        printf("false\n");
}

In this procedural programming example, we create separate C functions (or procedures) to handle different aspects of the problem. One function, get_input(), is responsible for obtaining an integer from the user. This addresses the sub-problem of user input. Another function, isDivisibleby3(), checks whether the given number is divisible by 3, tackling another aspect of the problem. These two functions operate independently; they do not interact with or are aware of each other.

In the main() function, we call these procedures in a logical sequence to solve the original task. The essence of procedural programming lies in this methodology: break down the problem into smaller, manageable units (divide), solve each unit separately (conquer), and then integrate these solutions to address the overall problem (build). This approach allows for clear, organized, and modular programming.

Alongside Procedural Programming, there are several other programming paradigms, such as Object Oriented Programming (a form of imperative programming) and Functional Programming (a type of declarative programming). It’s important to note that many programming languages support multiple paradigms. For instance, although C++ is renowned for its object-oriented capabilities, it is possible to write C-style code in C++ adhering to procedural programming practices. Moreover, C++ incorporates some functional programming features 7, which are even the subject of a dedicated book.

Similarly, languages like Python and PHP are also multi-paradigm, allowing programmers to choose the most suitable approach for their needs. However, some languages are designed with a specific paradigm in mind. A prime example is Smalltalk, which is purely object-oriented. This illustrates that while many modern languages offer versatility in programming styles, some are still tailored for a singular paradigmatic approach.

The decision to support certain programming paradigms within a language rests with its designers. When a language is specifically designed for a particular paradigm, programming within that style is typically more straightforward. However, this doesn’t mean that programmers are restricted to only the paradigms natively supported by the language. Take C, for instance. Although it’s not inherently an object-oriented programming language, it’s still possible to adopt an object-oriented approach in C programming. This versatility is exemplified by the existence of books and resources dedicated to object-oriented programming in C.

The Book

Object-Oriented Programming With ANSI-C by Axel Schreiner

Indeed, if the primary goal is to employ an object-oriented approach, C might not be the ideal choice. This is because object-oriented programming is not a native feature of C. However, with some effort and adaptation, it is possible to make object-oriented programming work within the context of C.

Computer Architecture and Procedural Programming

Earlier, I mentioned that the imperative programming paradigm aligns naturally with the way processor architectures are designed. This perspective considers the sequential and direct order-driven nature of processor operations, which is characteristic of imperative programming.

Procedural programming, like imperative programming, naturally fits with how processors operate. Processors, even the earliest models, inherently support routines, akin to functions in C. Instructions such as GOSUB (go to subroutine) or RET (return from subroutine) are commonplace in processor instruction sets. Writing in assembly involves using these imperative instructions and organizing code into subroutines or procedures. In essence, programming in C is similar to assembly programming, but with a much higher level of abstraction and ease.

When compared to object-oriented programming, procedural programming can be seen as more in line with the native functioning of computer architecture. However, as I’ve previously mentioned, this doesn’t imply that one paradigm is inherently superior to the other. The choice largely depends on the specific requirements of your project.

To summarize, C is a language that fundamentally supports the procedural programming paradigm, aligning closely with the underlying architecture of processors.

📓 standard

C stands out as a programming language with formal standardization. It has official standard documents recognized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). This formal standardization sets it apart from widely used languages like Python and Perl, which, although not formally standardized, have documents that act as de facto standards. It’s noteworthy that before its formal standardization, C was guided by a de facto standard, primarily the book The C Programming Language. This book served as the unofficial standard for C from 1978 until the language’s first official standardization in 1989.

The official C standards are designated using the format ISO/IEC 9899:<YEAR>. For instance, the C11 standard is officially named ISO/IEC 9899:2011.

Thanks to the established standards, there are high-quality C compilers available, developed both by communities and companies. Examples include GCC (GNU Compiler Collection), Clang/LLVM, and MSVC (Microsoft Visual C++). Compilers that adhere to the rules defined in these standards are referred to as conforming compilers. This standardization ensures a level of consistency and reliability in compiler behavior across different platforms and use cases.

History of C standards are explained in History of C post.

⚓ statically typed

Almost all programming languages feature a type system, referred to as ‘tür’ in Turkish. For example, variables and constants have types associated with them. Most of the languages have rules regarding type system, like type conversion rules. These rules can be checked at different times. Generally, in compiled languages, the types of objects are determined and type rules are checked during the compilation phase. In contrast, for interpreted languages, these steps are performed at runtime.

Therefore, if a language determines object types and enforces type rules at compile time, it is classified as a statically typed language. Conversely, if these steps occur at runtime, the language is considered dynamically typed. This distinction is crucial in understanding how different languages manage and apply their type systems.

In statically typed languages, the types of objects, such as variables, are determined at compile time, and these types remain constant throughout the runtime. Once a variable’s type is set, it does not change, regardless of the type of value subsequently assigned to it. This consistency in variable types is a defining characteristic of statically typed languages.

Conversely, in dynamically typed languages, a variable’s type is typically established with its first assignment. The variable assumes the type of the initial value assigned to it. However, unlike in statically typed languages, this type can change during execution. If a value of a different type is later assigned to the same variable, the variable’s type will adjust to reflect this new assignment. This flexibility in variable types is a key feature of dynamically typed languages.

In statically typed languages, because the types of objects remain constant, compilers are able to verify the language’s type rules during the compilation process. This capability allows for the detection and resolution of most type-related errors before the program is even run. On the other hand, dynamically typed languages typically perform their type rule checks at runtime. As a result, these languages may encounter and throw exceptions during execution when a rule violation occurs.

C is a statically typed language.

C, C++, and Java are examples of statically typed languages. In these languages, the types of variables are determined at compile time and remain unchanged during execution. On the other hand, JavaScript, Python, and PHP are dynamically typed languages. In these languages, variable types are determined at runtime and can change as the program executes 8, 9.

Let’s delve into examples to better understand dynamically typed languages, starting with Python. In Python, you can use the type() function to determine the type of an object. This feature is particularly useful in a dynamically typed language, as it allows us to observe how the types of variables can change at runtime. Let’s explore some Python code snippets to see this functionality in action.

x = 3
print (type(x))
x = "alper"
y = x + " yazar"
print (type(x))
x = 3.5
print (type(x))
y = x + " yazar"

The following output is produced when the program runs

<class 'int'>
<class 'str'>
<class 'float'>
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<string>", line 8, in <module>
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'float' and 'str'

In this Python example, we can observe how the type of the variable x changes implicitly during execution, or at runtime, through assignment of values of different types. Consider the expression y = x + " yazar" appearing on both line 4 and line 8. Initially, this operation is successful because, at that point, x is of type str, and concatenating (adding) two strings is permissible. However, by the time we reach the last line, the type of x has changed to float, and Python does not allow adding a str to a float.

This change in x’s type and the resulting TypeError on the last line underscore Python’s dynamically typed nature. The error is only caught when the program is executed and reaches that line, not at the start. This is because Python, being dynamically typed, enforces type-related rules during runtime.

Now, let’s shift our focus to a statically typed language: C. In C, determining the type of a variable isn’t as straightforward as in Python, since C lacks a built-in function akin to Python’s type(). Nevertheless, with the introduction of C11, C gained support for generic selection expressions, which, when combined with macro definitions, can be used to achieve something similar to Python’s type() functionality. This approach allows us to infer the type of a variable in a way that aligns with C’s statically typed nature 10, 11.

Let’s examine the following example of a C program. It’s not necessary to understand every line in detail. The primary focus is to illustrate how certain concepts are implemented in C, particularly in the context of a statically typed language. This example will provide insights into how C handles types and other programming constructs, even if you’re not fully familiar with all the aspects of the language.

// See: https://stackoverflow.com/a/17290414/1766391
// Tested with x86-64 gcc 12.2 with default flags on https://godbolt.org/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stddef.h>
#include <stdint.h>

#define typename(x) _Generic((x),        /* Get the name of a type */             \
                                                                                  \
        _Bool: "_Bool",                  unsigned char: "unsigned char",          \
         char: "char",                     signed char: "signed char",            \
    short int: "short int",         unsigned short int: "unsigned short int",     \
          int: "int",                     unsigned int: "unsigned int",           \
     long int: "long int",           unsigned long int: "unsigned long int",      \
long long int: "long long int", unsigned long long int: "unsigned long long int", \
        float: "float",                         double: "double",                 \
  long double: "long double",                   char *: "pointer to char",        \
       void *: "pointer to void",                int *: "pointer to int",         \
      default: "other")

int main(void){
    int x;
    double y = 3.4;
    printf("x is %s\n",typename(x));
    printf("y is %s\n",typename(y));
    x = y; //Why not error?
    printf("x is still %s\n",typename(x));
    printf("x = %d\n",x);
}

The output is:

x is int
y is double
x is still int
x = 3

In this C program, we define two variables: x and y. Right from the start, their types are explicitly declared: x is an int and y is a double. These types remain unchanged throughout the program’s execution. Interestingly, partway through the program, we assign the value of y (which is a double) to x (an int type variable). Why doesn’t this cause an error, either at compilation or runtime?

The reason is C’s handling of implicit type conversion. During the assignment, the double value 3.4 is implicitly converted to an int. This results in a hidden and temporary integer object with the value 3. This implicit conversion aligns with C’s type rules and is distinct from the concept of static type checking. It’s crucial to note that despite this value assignment, the type of x remains int, showcasing the constancy of types in statically typed languages.

Let’s examine another C programming example where the code fails to compile. In this case, we encounter an error that prevents the creation of an executable file, stopping us from even testing the code.

// Tested with x86-64 gcc 12.2 with default flags on https://godbolt.org/
int main(void){
    int *p1, *p2, *p3;
    p3 = p1 + p2;
}

Output from the compiler (not the output of the program) follows:

<source>: In function 'main':
<source>:3:13: error: invalid operands to binary + (have 'int *' and 'int *')
    3 |     p3 = p1 + p2;
      |             ^
ASM generation compiler returned: 1

The reason this C program is invalid lies in the attempted operation: adding two pointers. In C, pointer addition is not a valid operation. While the underlying rationale for this is beyond the current scope, the key takeaway is that this violation is caught during the compilation phase. As C is a statically typed language, its compiler is able to check and enforce type-related rules during compilation. This means that errors can be identified and addressed before the program even reaches the execution stage.

The following video is about JavaScript but explains the concepts well.

Video

Good and short explanation

🏗️ structured

C is a structured programming language. The opposite of structured programming is non-structured programming or unstructured programming. Here there are 5 typical characteristics of a structured language:

  1. Control Structures: Enables clear flow control using loops and conditional statements, improving readability and maintainability. C has control structures like if, switch..case, for, while.
  2. Modularity: Supports dividing code into reusable, independent functions or modules for better organization and testing. In C, we use mainly functions to obtain modularity. C includes a standard library that provides a set of predefined functions for performing various tasks, further supporting structured and modular programming.
  3. Local Variable Scope: Encourages variables to be declared within their usage scope, reducing side effects and enhancing code safety.
  4. Sequential Execution: Maintains a predictable and straightforward flow of program execution within each structure.
  5. Limited Use of GOTO Statements: Discourages the use of GOTO statements, preventing complex and unmanageable “spaghetti code.” Although C allows GOTO statements, it should be used with caution.

While C is a structured programming language, it’s also flexible and allows for different programming styles. This flexibility means that it’s possible to write unstructured code in C, but the language itself provides all the necessary features to support structured programming practices.

〰 weakly typed

Nearly all programming languages implement some form of type-checking and enforce type-related rules, but they vary in the degree of strictness with which they do so. Languages that are more paranoid about types tend to have stringent rules. These strongly typed languages require programmers to explicitly declare type conversions and minimize implicit type conversions. In contrast, weakly typed languages take a more lenient approach to type rules. They readily perform implicit conversions as needed, often prioritizing convenience or flexibility over strict type adherence. This distinction ties into the broader concept of type safety, which concerns how a language prevents type errors and manages conversions between different types.

The concept of a type system’s strength in programming languages exists on a continuum, with some languages enforcing stronger type rules than others. This categorization can be quite controversial. When it comes to C, for instance, you’ll find a diverse range of opinions online. Some sources categorize C as weakly typed, while others assert it is strongly typed. This disparity in views makes the discussion particularly interesting. To gain a clearer understanding, let’s explore what the authors of The C Programming Language book (often referred to as K&R C) have to say on this topic.

C is not a strongly-typed language in the sense of Pascal or Algol 68. It is relatively permissive about data conversion, although it will not automatically convert data types with the wild abandon of PL/I. Existing compilers provide no run-time checking of array subscripts, argument types, etc.

The quote we’ll be examining is from the third page of the first edition (1978) of The C Programming Language book.

From the authors’ perspective, it is clear that they did not categorize C as a strongly typed language. However, it’s also noteworthy that they did not explicitly label C as a weakly typed language either. In ‘The C Programming Language’ book, they recommend the use of linter tools to enhance the strength of the type system and type checking rules in C. This suggests an acknowledgment of C’s flexibility in type enforcement, and the potential to bolster its type safety through additional tools.

The second edition of The C Programming Language published in 1988, aligns closely with the ANSI C standard. In this edition, the authors provide updated insights and perspectives that reflect the developments and standardizations in C programming. They state:

C is not a strongly-typed language, but as it has evolved, its type-checking has been strengthened.

In the subsequent sections, the book delves into the enhancements made to strengthen the type system in C. One of the core philosophies of the C language is to offer maximum freedom to the programmer, which, in turn, places a high degree of responsibility on them. C does not extensively police the programmer’s actions. This design choice is rooted in C’s intended use for developing operating systems and low-level tools, where the ability to perform memory manipulation and other advanced techniques is crucial. The book continues to explain this philosophy, stating:

Nevertheless, C retains the basic philosophy that programmers know what they are doing; it only requires that they state their intentions explicitly.

As highlighted, programming in C requires a deep understanding of what you are doing, given the language’s design philosophy. If we envision a continuum representing type system strength, with strongly typed at one end and weakly typed at the other, C would be placed nearer to the weakly typed end. Therefore, it can be characterized as a weakly typed language, reflecting its emphasis on programmer freedom and responsibility, rather than stringent type enforcement.

❗ It’s important to remember that the concept of a language being ‘strongly’ or ‘weakly’ typed is distinct from it being ‘statically’ or ‘dynamically’ typed. These are separate dimensions of classifying programming languages. For instance, Python is categorized as a dynamically typed language, yet it is also considered strongly typed due to its strict enforcement of type rules at runtime. On the other hand, C is a statically typed language, as types are determined at compile time, but it is often viewed as weakly typed because of its more permissive approach to type conversions and enforcement. Understanding this distinction helps in comprehensively grasping the type systems of various programming languages.

C is considered as a weakly typed language because it does some implicit type conversions to help the programmer. From memory safety perspective, it almost does not check anything regarding memory access. For example, one can easily access beyond array bounds.

JavaScript is a pretty weakly typed language. Let’s look at the following code. Your mind may blow off!

// https://www.programiz.com/javascript/online-compiler/

console.log(4 + '7');
console.log(4 * '7');
console.log(2 + true);
console.log(false - 3);

The output is:

47
28
3
-3

This is very interesting. At the first line, the addition does a string concatenation. At the second line, the character 7 is interpreted as an integer and a multiplication is performed.

You will never think of the C language as a weakly typed language again once you see JavaScript.

The following video is about JavaScript but explains the concepts well.

Video

Good and short explanation

📚 Resources

  1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language) ↩

  2. Historically, there were machines specifically designed for a programming language like the Lisp machine. ↩

  3. https://www.educative.io/blog/declarative-vs-imperative-programming ↩

  4. https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/programminglanguages_definition/ ↩

  5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming ↩

  6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_programming ↩

  7. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/archive/msdn-magazine/2012/august/c-functional-style-programming-in-c ↩

  8. https://stackoverflow.com/a/1517670/1766391 ↩

  9. https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Glossary/Static_typing ↩

  10. http://www.robertgamble.net/2012/01/c11-generic-selections.html ↩

  11. https://stackoverflow.com/a/17290414/1766391 ↩

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